Masculinity and problematic pornography viewing: The moderating role of self-esteem (2019)

Borgogna, N. C., McDermott, R. C., Berry, A. T., & Browning, B. R. (2019).

Psychology of Men & Masculinities. Advance online publication.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/men0000214

Abstract

Problematic pornography viewing is receiving increased attention as a men’s issue. However, few studies have examined how culturally constructed masculine role norms relate to pornography problems and how individual differences may moderate these associations. Men (N = 520) were recruited online to participate in a survey examining how conformity to masculine role norms was associated with problematic pornography viewing dimensions and how self-esteem moderates these associations. Controlling for pornography viewing frequency, religious identity, and sexual orientation, structural equation modeling revealed power over women and playboy norms as associated with increased problematic pornography viewing, whereas emotional control and winning norms were negatively related to problematic pornography viewing. Of these associations, power over women norms produced consistent positive direct effects across all dimensions, whereas emotional control norms produced consistent negative direct effects. Latent variable interactions reversed the negative direct effects, suggesting men low in self-esteem but high in emotional control and self-reliance norms demonstrate increases in problematic pornography viewing. Interactions similarly evidenced positive relationships between conformity to playboy norms and problematic pornography viewing, with an exacerbation effect for those low in self-esteem. Findings suggest that men’s pornography viewing may be tied to their expressions of traditional masculinity. In addition, men with low self-esteem may be especially drawn to pornography, potentially as a way of over-conforming to and performing certain male role norms. Implications for practice include exploring masculinity ideology with male clients struggling with pornography viewing problems and integrating masculinity as an important cultural consideration within established treatment modalities for pornography addiction.

Keywords: Problematic Pornography Viewing, Masculinity, Gender Roles, Pornography Addiction, Self-Esteem

Public Significance Statement: Many clients present with concerns related to pornography viewing. Our findings indicate that clinicians should explore cultural and self-esteem factors with their clients who struggle with problematic pornography viewing behaviors.

Pornography viewing is an increasingly common practice due to the affordability, accessibility, and anonymity of the Internet (Alexandraki, Stavropoulos, Burleigh, King, & Griffiths, 2018; Cooper, 1998). Greater access to pornography increases the likelihood that individuals may experience problems related to their pornography viewing. This is especially true for men, who view pornography more than women (Albright, 2008; Carroll, Busby, Willoughby, & Brown, 2017; Carroll et al., 2008; Paul, 2009; Price, Patterson, Regnerus, & Walley, 2016) and experience more problems as a result of their pornography viewing (Gola, Lewczuk, & Skorko, 2016; Grubbs & Perry, 2018; Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2018; Twohig, Crosby, & Cox, 2009; Wéry & Billieux, 2017). Thus, researchers have become increasingly interested in understanding predictors of problematic pornography viewing. While there is no definitive overarching conceptualization of problematic pornography viewing, researchers have identified certain constellations of behaviors generally termed “problematic pornography viewing”. These include addictive features of pornography (including withdrawal and tolerance features), distressing subjective perceptions of addiction to pornography, pornography use in inappropriate settings (such as place of employment), relationship problems associated with pornography, and/or the use of pornography to dsyfunctionally manage ones emotions (Borgogna & McDermott, 2018; Gola et al., 2017, 2016; Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2018; Grubbs, Sessoms, Wheeler, & Volk, 2010; Grubbs, Wilt, Exline, Pargament, & Kraus, 2018; Kor et al., 2014; Lewczuk, Szmyd, Skorko, & Gola, 2017; Twohig et al., 2009). Using Kor et al.’s (2014) conceptualization, problematic pornography viewing broadly entails four general areas of functional impairment: (a) functional discord (e.g., problems at work and/or with romantic partners), (b) excessive use or perceptions of excessive use, (c) difficulty controlling how/when one uses pornography, and (d) the use of the pornography as a dysfunctional means of escaping negative emotions (Kor et al., 2014).

Culturally relevant variables have been implicated as factors important to pornography usage and associated problematic pornography viewing tendencies. However, variables such as socially constructed masculine role norms (Mahalik et al., 2003; Parent & Moradi, 2011) have received little attention, despite the fact that men are the primary consumers of pornography. Accordingly, the present study examined the degree to which conformity to different masculine role norms predicted problematic pornography viewing and tested potential moderators of these associations.

Conformity to Traditional Masculine Norms

Gender role norms are the standards that guide and define behaviors as masculine or feminine (Mahalik, 2000). For men, conformity to masculine role norms is defined as striving to meet societal expectations for what constitutes acceptable masculine behavior in one’s private and social life (Mahalik et al. 2003). Because masculinity norms vary by culture and context, and thus there are a countless ways of expressing different “masculinities”(Wong & Wester, 2016). However, counseling and clinical psychologists have discovered that certain constellations of masculine role norms may be especially problematic when rigidly internalized or fulfilled. These beliefs and norms are often characterized by old-fashioned, rigid, sexist, and patriarchal perspectives about how men should think, feel, and behave, and often are referred to as “traditional” role norms (see Levant & Richmond, 2016; McDermott, Levant, Hammer, Borgogna, & Mckelvey, 2018). In Mahalik’s (2000) model of gender role norm conformity, traditional masculine norms are communicated through descriptive (perceptions of typically masculine behaviors), injunctive (perceptions of which behaviors are approved/not approved as being masculine), and cohesive (perceptions of how men in popular cultural act) norms. Conformity, in turn, influences a variety of interpersonal and intrapersonal outcomes (Mahalik, 2000; Mahalik et al., 2003).

Factor analyses have yielded empirical support for the existence of different traditional masculine role norms in contemporary Western society. Specifically, Mahalik and colleagues (2003) identified 11 related but distinct norms: winning (norms involving a drive to win, be competitive, and fear of losing), emotional control (norms involving restricted emotionality, discussion of uncomfortable feelings), risk-taking (norms involving a drive to take physical and interpersonal risks, such as being in physical danger), violence (norms involving and justifying violent behavior, especially involving violence between oneself and others), power over women (norms involving a masculine dominance over women physically, emotionally, and socially), dominance (norms involving a need for power and control), playboy (norms suggesting a desire to have multiple sex partners and engage in casual sex), self-reliance (norms mandating self-reliance and restricting help seeking behaviors), primacy of work (norms prioritizing career and work-related endeavors), disdain for homosexuals (heterosexist and homophobic norms, including fears of being perceived as “gay”), and pursuit of status (norms mandating men should pursue prestigious social positions). Parent and Moradi (2009, 2011) performed additional factor analytic work and reduced this list to nine specific norms (removing dominance and pursuit of status, while renaming “disdain for homosexuals” to “heterosexual self-presentation”).

Researchers have identified a number of personal and relational problems associated with conformity to these traditional male role norms (Parent & Moradi, 2011; Wong, Ho, Wang, & Miller, 2017). For example, conformity to heterosexual self-presentation norms was negatively associated with HIV testing in men who have sex with men (Parent, Torrey, & Michaels, 2012). Playboy, self-reliance, and risk-taking norms have been positively associated with psychological distress (Wong, Owen, & Shea, 2012). Conformity to masculine norms of emotional control and self-reliance also positively predicted self-stigma and emotional self-disclosure risks (Heath, Brenner, Vogel, Lannin, & Strass, 2017). Relatedly, emotional control and self-reliance norms were the strongest negative predictors of help-seeking intentions for suicidal thoughts in college men (McDermott et al., 2017) and the strongest meta-analytic predictors of men’s mental health problems across several studies (Wong et al., 2017). Researchers have also found moderate, positive associations between conformity to some masculine role norms and specific character strengths, such as courage, endurance, and resilience (Hammer & Good, 2010); however, most research findings support the deleterious nature of conformity to traditional masculine role norms (e.g., Wong et al., 2017).

Conformity to Traditional Masculine Norms and Pornography

Despite the reported associations between conformity to traditional masculine role norms and men’s mental and physical health problems, relatively few researchers have examined problematic pornography viewing as a potential correlate. Researchers have argued that the content of modern pornography is replete with themes of traditional masculine gender role norms (Borgogna, McDermott, Browning, Beach, & Aita, 2018; Bridges, Wosnitzer, Scharrer, Sun, & Liberman, 2010; Dines, 2006; Fritz & Paul, 2017). Accordingly, several conceptual connections may be evident between Mahalik’s (2000) model of role norm conformity and the potential to experience problems due to pornography viewing. For example, men’s conformity to playboy norms suggests a desire to have sex often and with multiple female partners (Mahalik et al., 2003). Indeed, pornography depicts men having sex with vast amounts of female partners; therefore, some men may view excessive amounts of pornography or put relationships at risk in order to conform to the playboy norm. Further, the power over women norms suggest women should be subservient to men (Mahalik et al., 2003). Pornography allows men to view a virtually limitless set of women, often in a variety of objectifying or subservient positions designed for male pleasure (Fritz & Paul, 2017). Consistent with tenets of Social Script Theory (Simon & Gagnon, 1986), and more specifically the sexual script acquisition, activation, application model (3AM) of sexual media socialization (Wright, 2011; Wright & Bae, 2016), findings have indicated that men who view such material, act out such behaviors with their sexual partners (Bridges, Sun, Ezzell, & Johnson, 2016; Sun, Bridges, Johnson, & Ezzell, 2016; Sun, Miezan, Lee, & Shim, 2015). Potentially causing relationship problems, or even violent interpersonal issues (Bergner & Bridges, 2002; Brem et al., 2018; Bridges, Bergner, & Hesson-McInnis, 2003; Manning, 2006; Perry, 2017a, 2018; Wright, Tokunaga, & Kraus, 2016; Wright, Tokunaga, Kraus, & Klann, 2017; Zitzman & Butler, 2009).

Other norms may be more peripherally related, but also consistent with factors associated with pornography viewing. For instance, violence norms suggest men should be forceful and aggressive (Mahalik et al., 2003). Aggressive sexual behaviors are frequent in popular pornographic films, with men almost always being the perpetrator and women almost always being the target (Bridges et al., 2010; Fritz & Paul, 2017; Klaassen & Peter, 2015; Sun, Bridges, Wosnitzer, Scharrer, & Liberman, 2008). Relatedly, emotional control norms suggest men should be devoid of emotional expression, especially for concerns related to negative emotions (Mahalik et al., 2003). Problematic pornography users often report using pornography as a means of escaping mental health problems (Kor et al., 2014; Perry, 2017b) or as a means of coping (Cortoni & Marshall, 2001; Laier, Pekal, & Brand, 2015). Thus, for some men, pornography viewing may be thought of as a socially conforming means of dealing with emotional problems (Borgogna, McDermott, Browning, et al., 2018)

A small but growing body of literature has formally examined the associations between conformity to traditional masculine role norms (or related-constructs) and problematic pornography viewing. In general, these findings suggest that men who conform to traditional masculine role norms view pornography with greater frequency and are likely to report personal or relational problems related to pornography viewing. For example, Szymanski and Stewart-Richardson (2014) identified a positive link between masculine gender role conflict and problematic pornography viewing as predictors of men’s relationship quality and sexual satisfaction. Similarly, Borgogna et al. (2018) found that men’s traditional masculinity ideologies, such as beliefs that men should avoid feminine behaviors and not show vulnerable emotions, were positively associated with distinct aspects of problematic pornography viewing such as functional problems and using pornography to avoid negative emotions.

Emerging evidence suggests that conformity to certain masculine norms may also be associated with problematic pornography viewing. Most notably, in the only related study measuring conformity to masculine role norms, Mikorski and Szymanski (2017) found that pornography viewing, playboy norms, and violence norms uniquely predicted men’s sexual objectification of women. These findings were consistent with previous research that men’s pornography viewing, especially violent pornography viewing, is associated with indicators of violence and sexual aggression against women (Hald, Malamuth, & Yuen, 2010; Hald & Malamuth, 2015; Seabrook, Ward, & Giaccardi, 2018; Wright & Tokunaga, 2016; Ybarra, Mitchell, Hamburger, Diener-West, & Leaf, 2011).

Self-Esteem as a Moderator

Despite emerging evidence connecting traditional masculinity (e.g., norms and ideologies) to problematic pornography viewing, further work is necessary. Given the personal and relational problems associated with problematic pornography viewing, identifying moderators of the associations between men’s conformity to certain masculine role norms and pornography problems could inform prevention and treatment. Indeed, masculinity researchers have recognized that the associations between expressions of masculinity and problematic outcomes vary (Levant & Richmond, 2016; O’Neil, 2015). That is, not everyone who conforms to traditional masculine role norms experiences problems. Several individual difference variables moderate the harmful effects of traditional masculinity.

Consistent with theorists who have argued that a fragile masculine self (i.e., marked by personal insecurities, such as low self-esteem) may explain why some men rigidly overconform to masculine norms, but other men express masculinity in ways that do not lead to personal and relational problems (c.f., Blazina, 2001), we suggest self-esteem as a potential moderator influencing the degree to which conformity to masculine role norms affect problematic pornography viewing behaviors. Specifically, low self-esteem should be associated with a strengthening of the relationship between conformity to masculine role norms and problematic pornography use, whereas, high self-esteem should weaken the relationship.

Such an assertion has been supported by numerous findings that men’s rigid adherence to traditional role norms are associated with negative self-views (Fischer, 2007; McDermott & Lopez, 2013; Schwartz, Waldo, & Higgins, 2004; Yang, Lau, Wang, Ma, & Lau, 2018). Moreover, modern extensions of established social psychological theories, such as self-identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986), further support the existence of a fragile form of masculinity. For example, men’s masculinity-contingent self-esteem has been positively correlated with traditional masculinity ideologies (Burkley, Wong, & Bell, 2016). Indeed, several controlled laboratory investigations indicate that men are likely to perform traditional or stereotypical masculine behaviors when they perceive that their masculinity has been threatened (e.g., Precarious Manhood; Vandello & Bosson, 2013).

Taken together, investigations examining the connections between masculinity variables and self-esteem indicate that insecure men may be especially prone to experience problems related to their masculinity. Moreover, men with higher self-esteem may be less likely to express their masculinities in such rigid and problematic ways. Although comparatively little research has examined the potential moderating role of self-esteem, and no studies have examined self-esteem in relation to problematic pornography viewing and masculinity, a small body of literature supports such an inquiry. For example, researchers found that the associations between masculinity ideologies and sexual prejudice were significantly stronger for men with low levels of gender self-esteem (Mellinger & Levant, 2014). Similarly, Heath et al. (2017) recently identified that a related construct to self-esteem, self-compassion (Neff, 2003), moderated the associations between men’s conformity to emotional control and self-reliance norms and help seeking. Men with high levels of self-compassion in their study evidenced the weakest associations between masculine norms and counseling barriers. Such findings indicate that men who like themselves may not perform/conform to traditional male roles in ways that lead to personal or relational restrictions, such as viewing pornography as a means of vicariously dominating a partner or controlling one’s stress.

Conceptually, self-esteem likely influences the degree to which one conforms with gender role norms and associated problematic expressions of those norms (in this case, problematic pornography viewing). For instance, a man with low self-esteem may be more prone to believe norms that suggest men should be having lots of sex with different partners (i.e. playboy norms). This man may use pornography to vicariously engage with multiple partners to manage his negative emotions associated with his perceived failure to fully experience being a “playboy” in-vivo. Conversely, a man with high self-esteem would be more likely to feel satisfied with his number of sexual partners. He, therefore, would not be dependent on pornography to vicariously conform to the playboy norms. However, given the relative dearth of research examining masculine role norms, problematic pornography viewing, and self-esteem, continued examination across these variables is still needed.

The Current Study

Further research is needed to examine the potential associations between men’s conformity to traditional masculine role norms and problematic pornography viewing. Moreover, identifying which variables may buffer or exacerbate such relationships may provide important information for counseling or prevention. The present study examined the role of conformity to masculine roles as predictors of problematic pornography viewing variables in a large sample of men. Two hypotheses guided our analyses. First (H1), consistent with prior research and theoretical connections (Borgogna, McDermott, Browning, Beach, & Aita, 2018; Mikorski & Szymanski, 2017; Szymanski & Stewart-Richardson, 2014), we hypothesized that power over women, playboy, violence, and emotional control norms would be predictive of problematic pornography viewing constructs. However, as a means of exploratory examination, we tested all masculine norms measured in in relation to problematic pornography viewing dimensions. Second (H2), consistent with fragile masculine-self and precarious manhood paradigms (c.f., Blazina, 2001; Vandello & Bosson, 2013), we hypothesized that high self-esteem would act as a moderator buffering the relationships between conformity to masculine norms and problematic pornography viewing, with low self-esteem exacerbating the relationships.

Method

Participants/Procedure

After internal review board approval, participants were gathered online via a Psychology Department subject pool (SONA), with additional snowball sampling through The Social Psychology Network Listserv, The Psychological Research on the Net Listserv, postings on Craigslist, and postings on Reddit. The study was advertised as a survey exploring general social attitudes and behaviors specifically in men. All instruments were randomized to avoid order effects. Participants gathered through the subject pool were offered extra-credit, those participating through the snowball procedure could optionally enter a raffle for one $100 Visa-gift cards. Initially, 868 participants responded to the study; however, after removing participants who were women, transgender, younger than 18, failed attention checks, and/or completed less than 80% of any factor of each measure, only 520 men remained. Table 1 provides the demographic breakdown of the full sample.

Measures

Demographic form. Participants were asked to indicate their gender, age, sexual orientation, ethnicity, relationship status, level-of-education completed, student status, and religious affiliation. Pornography demographics were measured with the following items (both used in previous studies of problematic pornography viewing; e.g., Borgogna & McDermott, 2018): “In the past 12 months, on average, how often have you intentionally accessed pornography?” 1. Haven’t accessed pornography in the past 12 months, 2. A few times in the past year, 3. A few times a month, 4. A few times a week, 5. About daily. And, “At what age did you first view pornography?” Pornography was defined as viewing materials that depict sexual activity, organs, and/or experiences for the purpose of sexual arousal (Kalman, 2008).

Problematic Pornography Use Scale. The Problematic Pornography Use Scale (PPUS; Kor et al., 2014) is a 12-item measure of four dimensions of problematic pornography viewing. The PPUS holds advantage over single construct instruments due to the four-factor model identified by Kor et al. (2014). Specifically, the PPUS enables participants to measure the degree to which pornography has led to problems in relationships (professional and romantic), how much one uses pornography to escape negative emotions, as well as perceptions of problematic use (similar to perceived pornography addiction; Grubbs, Exline, Pargament, Hook, & Carlisle, 2015; Grubbs, Perry, et al., 2018; Grubbs, Wilt, et al., 2018; Wilt, Cooper, Grubbs, Exline, & Pargament, 2016). The factors include: distress and functional problems (FP; “Using pornography has created significant problems in my personal relationships with other people, in social situations, at work or in other important aspects of my life,” α = .75), excessive use (EU; “I spend too much time planning to and using pornography,” α = .89), control difficulties (CD; “I feel I cannot stop watching pornography,” α = .90), and use for escape/avoidance negative emotions (ANE; “I use pornographic materials to escape my grief or to free myself from negative feelings,” α = .92). Items are scored on a Likert-type scale (1-never true to 6-almost always true). The four factor model has been validated through confirmatory factor analyses in the original validation, as well as subsequent studies of problematic pornography viewing (e.g., Borgogna, McDermott, Browning, Beach, & Aita, 2018). The scale has further demonstrated appropriate convergent and construct validity (Kor et al., 2014).

Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory – 46. The Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46 (CMNI-46; Parent & Moradi, 2009) is an abbreviated version of the original 94-item CMNI (Mahalik et al., 2003). The CMNI-46 assesses conformity to masculine gender role norms stemming from western society. The CMNI-46 is a nine-factor measure that includes scales for winning (“In general, I will do anything to win,” α = .86), emotional control (“I never share my feelings,” α = .88), risk taking (“I enjoy taking risks,” α = .83), violence (“Sometimes violent action is necessary,” α = .86), power over women (“In general, I control the women in my life,” α = .80), playboy (“If I could, I would frequently change sexual partners,” α = .79), self-reliance (“I hate asking for help,” α = .84), primacy of work (“My work is the most important part of my life,” α = .77), and heterosexual self-presentation (“I would be furious if someone thought I was gay,” α = .88). Items are scored on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating stronger adherence to that particular masculine norm. The CMNI-46 has been shown to have high correlations with the 94-item CMNI and appropriate convergent and construct validity (Parent & Moradi, 2009, 2011; Parent, Moradi, Rummell, & Tokar, 2011).

Self-Liking/Self-Competence Scale. The Self-Liking/Self-Competence Scale is a 20-item self-report measure of self-esteem (Tafarodi & Swann Jr, 1995). For convenience, we specifically used the 10-item self-liking subscale (“I feel good about who I am,” α = .94) as our measure. Questions consist of positively and negatively worded items on a 5-point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Evidence for concurrent and convergent validity were demonstrated in the initial validation (Tafarodi & Swann, Jr., 1995).

Analytic Plan

We initially screened our data for missing values, normality issues, and outliers. We then assessed the bivariate correlations across all variables examined. To reduce the likelihood of spurious relationships and suppression effects in the primary analysis, only CMNI-46 scales that evidenced significant correlations with at least one problematic pornography viewing domain at the bivariate level were included in primary analyses.

We then used structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine the relationship between conformity to traditional masculine role norms, self-esteem, and problematic pornography viewing. Following best practice recommendations for SEM (Kline, 2016), we first tested a measurement model to ensure that all latent variables were adequately explaining variance in their respective manifest items (each latent variable was formed by the underlying items in each scale). After assessment of our measurement model, we then examined a structural model in which conformity to traditional masculine role norms and self-esteem predicted unique variance in problematic pornography domains. Additionally, due to research indicating pornography viewing frequency (e.g., Borgogna & McDermott, 2018) and sexual orientation (e.g., Hald, Smolenski, & Rosser, 2014) as important variables related to perceptions of problematic use, we controlled for pornography viewing frequency and sexual orientation (categorized as an ordered binary variable: heterosexual = 0, GBQ = 1) in all primary analyses.

To assess the role of self-esteem as a moderator, we then tested latent variable interactions using the latent moderated structural equations method using the XWITH command in MPLUS (Klein & Moosbrugger, 2000). Specifically, we created a series of post-hoc models that included an interaction term between self-esteem and each masculine norm in the structural model. We then evaluated the simple slopes, in which paths between the CMNI-46 factors on the PPUS dimensions were examined at high (1 SD above the mean) and low (1 SD below the mean) levels of self-esteem. Each interaction was conducted while controlling for the direct effects in the structural model (including the covarying factors of pornography viewing frequency and self-esteem). Despite the testing of multiple interaction models (a separate interaction had to be created for each masculine norm), we retained an alpha level of p < .05 as our level for determining statistical significance. This estimate is appropriate, given interaction effects are by nature rare, especially in the context of latent variables. A conceptual diagram of the moderated structural model is provided in Figure 1.

For evaluating model-fit, we used the following fit indices and recommended cutoffs (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2016): comparative fit index (CFI) and the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI; values close to .95 indicate a good fit for both the CFI and TLI), the root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) with 90% confidence intervals (CIs; low values of .06 or less and high values less than .10 indicate a good fit), and the standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR; values of .08 or less indicate a good fit). The chi-square test statistic was also reported (a non-significant value indicates a good fit to the data); however, it was interpreted with caution, given its sensitivity to sample size (Kline, 2016). Following best practices for latent variable interactions, we evaluated the fit of the measurement and structural model without including the interaction terms.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Of the 520 men, few had missing values (no more than 0.03% of the sample for any sub-scale). Thus, we used full-information maximum likelihood estimation to handle missing responses. All of the CMNI-46 and self-esteem scores, as well as the pornography viewing frequency responses were normally distributed. A slight positive skew was evident across all PPUS factors (ranging 1.07 to 1.67). Therefore, we used a maximum likelihood estimator with robust standard errors (MLR) in our primary analyses to fit the model while taking into account any potential normality violations. A few (< 2.2%) multivariate outliers were observed via the Mahalanobis Distances, but were not removed given their small frequency. Table 2 displays the bivariate correlations, means, and standard deviations of each measure. Because power over women, playboy, winning, emotional control, and self-reliance were the only scales to demonstrate a significant bivariate correlation with at least one of the PPUS dimensions, they were the only scales included in subsequent primary analyses. Notably, masculine norms measuring violence were not included due to the extremely small, non-significant, correlations with the PPUS factors.

Measurement Model

After our preliminary analyses, we tested the specified SEM measurement and structural models. These analyses were conducted in Mplus version 7.31 (Muthén & Muthén, 2016). Individual items were used to form respective latent variables. All analyses (except bootstraps) were estimated using MLR. The measurement model provided an acceptable fit, (n = 520) χ² (989) = 1723.24, p < .001, CFI = .94, TLI = .93, RMSEA = .038 (90% CI = .035, .041), and SRMR = .047. Factor loadings are presented in online supplementary Table 1. We then examined a structural model with paths specified: CMNI-46 factors power over women, self-reliance, winning, playboy, and emotional control, as well as self-esteem, and covariates (pornography viewing frequency and sexual orientation) entered as predictor variables with the PPUS factors functional problems, excessive use, control difficulties, and avoidance of negative emotions entered as criterion variables.

Structural Model

The initial structural model provided an acceptable fit, χ² (1063) = 2185.65, p < .001, CFI = .92, TLI = .92, RMSEA = .045 (90% CI = .042, .048), and SRMR = .047. Bootstrap samples (n = 1000) were then used to estimate the confidence intervals of each path from the predictor variable to the PPUS subscales. Table 3 displays the unstandardized and standardized coefficients for each path, and the 95% confidence intervals. Results indicated several significant paths. Specifically, power over women predicted functional problems, excessive use, control difficulties, and avoidance of negative emotions; playboy predicted excessive use; winning negatively predicted functional problems and avoidance of negative emotions; emotional control negatively predicted functional problems, excessive use, control difficulties, and avoidance of negative emotions; and self-esteem negatively predicted avoidance of negative emotions. The structural model accounted for 12% of the variance for functional problems, 26% for excessive use, 22% control difficulties, and 33% for avoidance of negative emotions.

Moderation analyses. To examine the potential interaction of conformity to masculine norms and self-esteem on problematic pornography viewing, interaction terms were used to predict problematic pornography viewing dimensions. Interactions were generated separately. Moreover, each interaction controlled for the paths generated in the structural model (Table 3). Results indicated significant interaction effects. Specifically, the interaction term of emotional control X self-esteem predicted functional problems (B = .16, S.E. = .07, β = .11, p = .01) and control difficulties (B = .18, S.E. = .07, β = .11, p = .02); playboy X self-esteem negatively predicted excessive use (B = -.16, S.E. = .06, β = -.15, p = .01) and avoidance of negative emotions (B = -.24, S.E. = .07, β = -.16, p < .001); and self-reliance X self-esteem predicted functional problems (B = .14, S.E. = .07, β = .10, p = .02). Figures 2 and 3 display the plotted moderation effects and provide the results of simple slopes tests to determine if each slope was significantly greater than zero at low (-1SD) and high (+1SD) levels of self-esteem. In total, these moderation effects explained variance in problematic pornography viewing beyond the direct effects, accounting for an additional 2% for functional problems, 2% for control difficulties, 5% for excessive use, and 5% for avoidance of negative emotions.

Discussion

The present study examined the combined contributions of men’s conformity to traditional masculine role norms on problematic pornography viewing, while also considering the role of self-esteem. In addition to direct effects, self-esteem was examined as a potential moderator. Two hypotheses were advanced: (H1) power over women, playboy, violence, and emotional control norms were expected to be positive predictors of problematic viewing domains, (H2) while self-esteem was expected to buffer and/or exacerbate these associations. Our results generally (but not completely) supported our hypotheses.

Partially consistent with hypothesis one, power over women and playboy masculine role norms were significantly related to at least one problematic pornography viewing domain at the bivariate level, whereas emotional control was significantly negatively related to problematic pornography viewing dimensions. Interestingly, violence norms were not correlated with any of the problematic pornography viewing factors. Moreover, results from the full correlation matrix indicated self-reliance and winning norms to also be significantly related to problematic pornography viewing (winning as a significant negative correlate, with self-reliance as a significant positive correlate). These findings highlight the multidimensional nature of men’s conformity to traditional masculine role norms (Hammer, Heath, & Vogel, 2018) and suggest that certain role norms are more relevant to problematic pornography viewing than others. Furthermore, when controlling for the combined contributions of these five norms, self-esteem, sexual orientation, and pornography viewing frequency; power over women, playboy, winning, and emotional control directly predicted unique variance that was not better explained by a moderation effect. Of these significant direct effects, power over women was the only positive predictor for all domains of problematic pornography viewing, whereas emotional control was a consistent negative predictor for all domains.

When examining the role of emotional control specifically, cultural expectations of how men should express vulnerable emotions may be relevant. Men who strive to control their emotions tend to also report a general unawareness or difficulty labeling their negative emotional states (Levant, Wong, Karakis, & Welsh, 2015; Wong, Pituch, & Rochlen, 2006). Thus, men who are unable to notice their emotional states may be less likely to endorse using pornography to manage negative emotions (e.g., grief and sadness; Kor et al., 2014). Additionally, men who have developed self-control qualities from conforming to societal expectations about male emotional expression may be less likely to report using pornography to avoid negative emotions, potentially because they have learned not to express such negative emotions. Men who strive to control their emotions may also exhibit greater self-control possibly as a byproduct of buying into cultural expectations of how to express emotions that require self-control (Fox & Calkins, 2003). While often associated with negative outcomes (McDermott et al., 2017; Wong et al., 2017), the self-control associated with emotional control may yield positive benefits in relation to problematic pornography viewing. For instance, men with greater emotional control, may still view pornography, but not to the point where it becomes problematic. Previous research on other problematic behaviors, such as alcohol use, support such a relationship, with emotional control being negatively predictive (Iwamoto, Corbin, Lejuez, & MacPherson, 2015).

Unlike the negative direct-effects of emotional control, playboy and power over women norms were positively related to problematic pornography viewing. While playboy norms were modestly related to excessive use problems, a logical question arises as to why power over women was a more consistent (and stronger) predictor of problematic pornography viewing across dimensions, considering that playboy (not power over women) was significantly related to pornography viewing frequency in previous research (Mikorski & Szymanski, 2017). An important distinction can be found in construct differences, as prior studies have mainly focused on men’s conformity to masculine role norms as correlates of pornography viewing frequency rather than problematic pornography viewing. Thus, power over women beliefs and behaviors may have unique associations with the problems associated with pornography. This is consistent with previous studies that indicate power over women as the most consistent (and strongest) correlate of men’s old-fashioned and modern sexism (Smiler, 2006), as well as recent research indicating men’s traditionally masculine dominance ideologies as being related to problems with pornography viewing (Borgogna, McDermott, Browning, et al., 2018). One possibility is that men who seek power and control over the women in their lives may be especially drawn to pornography because it allows them to vicariously dominate women. As a consequence, and possibly due to the addictive characteristics of pornography viewing in general (c.f., Gola et al., 2017), these men may develop physical, emotional, and relational problems associated with their pornography viewing habits (Kor et al., 2014).

Interestingly, conformity to violence norms was not related to any problematic pornography viewing dimensions, even at the bivariate level. However, pornography viewing frequency was modestly correlated with violence. We believe this also is a reflection of the differences in constructs between pornography viewing, and problematic pornography viewing behaviors. A wealth of literature has identified pornography viewing as a relevant factor to violent sexual behaviors (e.g., Hald et al., 2010; Vega & Malamuth, 2007). However, these findings do not take into account whether one considers their viewing as problematic. One potential area for further study is to examine personality traits such as psychopathy in relation to masculine norms, and problematic pornography viewing. It is likely that those with underlying anti-social personality characteristics will demonstrate increases in sexually aggressive behaviors, as well as pornography viewing, but may not necessarily perceive their viewing as problematic.

Winning norms was the only unanticipated masculinity dimension to be significantly related to problematic pornography viewing in the structural model. Similar to emotional control, winning was also negatively associated with functional problems and issues associated with using pornography to avoid negative feelings. The negative correlation between winning and problematic pornography viewing is somewhat surprising given the dearth of research connecting the two constructs, as well as the relatively distal conceptual connections. However, these findings are consistent with the general assertion that conformity to masculine role norms can sometimes have beneficial correlates (Hammer & Good, 2010). Indeed, men who value winning likely have positive and privileged self-views, and are therefore less-likely to struggle with unhealthy coping mechanisms such as pornography. Similarly, men who value winning likely pursue status in their endeavors, such as their careers. Thus, they may be less likely to use pornography in inappropriate contexts due to value they ascribe to these status associated relationships (work, romantic relationships).

Alternatively, those who perceive themselves as “winners,” or want to perceive themselves as “winners,” may be less likely to perceive (or at least respond on surveys) that their pornography viewing is problematic. Given the social desirability bias that might exist on these factors, as well as CMNI-46 and PPUS factors in general, future researchers should consider novel ways of examining these factors. Qualitative research may be particularly helpful to understanding the types of masculine characteristics that might be contributing to problematic pornography use.

Moderated Effects

Consistent with our second hypothesis, high levels of self-esteem moderated the associations between conformity to specific norms and certain pornography related problems. Interestingly, emotional control norms became significant positive predictors of problematic pornography viewing at low levels of self-esteem. Significant interactions were also evident with respect to playboy norms, suggesting high playboy norm adherence and low self-esteem as an important risk factor for excessive pornography use and problems using pornography to manage negative emotions. The present findings suggest that focusing on a fragile masculine self and precarious masculinity (Blazina, 2001; Burkley et al., 2016; Vandello & Bosson, 2013) may be especially relevant in clinical settings, because the consequences of expressing traditional masculinity were dependent on the valence of one’s self-esteem.

Past research has demonstrated men who perceive a threat to their masculinity tend to over-perform masculine behaviors (Vandello & Bosson, 2013); thus men with low self-esteem may have a masculinity-contingent sense of self-worth (Burkley et al. 2016). Extrapolated to the present study, men with negative self-views may be overconforming to playboy norms as a way of mitigating their insecurities through sexual conquests. In turn, these insecure men may be particularly attracted to pornography, not only for sexual gratification, but as a way of proving their masculinity. By contrast, men who have more positive self-views may not have the same insecure needs to view pornography. It is possible that men with high levels of self-esteem do not place as much weight on masculinity with respect to their self-worth, and thus their masculine role norm conformity may not be related to certain pornography viewing problems. Additionally, high self-esteemed men may not feel they need to view pornography to prove their masculinity, because they may have already met (or perceived that they have met) the dictates of traditional definitions of masculinity. For example, a man endorsing playboy norms, because he feels competent and likes himself, may be satisfied with his number of sexual partners or level of masculinity in that domain.

Examining men’s masculinity fragility may also hold promise for understanding the self-reliance interactions, albeit in a slightly different direction. Men with low levels of self-esteem evidenced the most functional (e.g., relational, career, and/or physical; Kor et al., 2014) problems associated with pornography viewing in relation to both self-reliance and emotional control norms. Interestingly, those high in self-esteem, who were also high in self-reliance exhibited functional problems at an identical rate to those low in self-esteem. Thus, the buffering effect of self-esteem disappeared for those who reported being highly self-reliant.

While the relationship between emotional control and problematic pornography viewing remained negative, it was far worse for those with low self-esteem. Recent research has inculcated men’s restrictive emotionality ideologies as being related to problematic pornography viewing (Borgogna, McDermott, Browning, et al., 2018); thus it is strange that the behavioral manifestation of such ideologies would be negative, even when controlling for the moderating role of self-esteem. This strengthens the argument for a possible self-control factor in conjunction with emotional control. Indeed, differences also exist between restrictive emotionality ideologies and conformity to actual emotional control behaviors. The belief that men must withhold emotional expressions seems to be related to problematic pornography viewing behaviors (particularly control difficulties and avoidance of negative emotions; Borgogna, McDermott, Browning, et al., 2018). Whereas conformity to the emotional control norm actually may be protective (though likely mediated through self-control). However, longitudinal research should be considered to examine the temporal relationships of these variables more closely.

Limitations

The present findings should be interpreted with respect to several key limitations. Notably, the cross-sectional nature and correlational design preclude any firm conclusions regarding causality or the true temporal order of conformity to masculine role norms and problematic pornography viewing. Longitudinal research is needed to address these limitations. The sample was also one of convenience and lacked diversity in age and race. Given the culturally-defined nature of masculine role norms and differential usage of Internet across age cohorts, more research is needed to examine the present variables in men of color and across the lifespan. As noted, the present study also relied on self-report measures which may have been susceptible to socially desirable response bias or other distorting influences. Thus, researchers are encouraged to examine partner report or other observational methods to replicate and extend our findings. Researchers are also encouraged to gather more in-depth demographic information about the kinds of pornography typically viewed, considering that this information was absent from the present study but may have been useful to include as a potential covariate.

Given these findings have not been tested in additional samples, replication of the results is necessary. Indeed, two of the significant paths in the structural model had standard errors that were half the size of the unstandardized coefficient (winning as a predictor of avoidance of negative emotions and playboy as a predictor of excessive use). The interaction with self-esteem accounts for some of the relationship between playboy and excessive use. However, further research, confirming a relationship between winning and problematic pornography dimensions, is recommended due to potential issues over the stability of the paths in the current model.

Additionally, we did not adequately control for differences in religious factors, scrupulosity, or the degree to which pornography viewing might be morally incongruent (and thus problematic). A rich body of research has indicated such factors are relevant to problematic pornography viewing (Borgogna & McDermott, 2018; Grubbs, Exline, et al., 2015; Grubbs & Perry, 2018; Grubbs, Perry, et al., 2018; Grubbs, Wilt, et al., 2018; Nelson, Padilla-Walker, & Carroll, 2010; Wilt et al., 2016). Thus, we encourage future researchers to examine the degree to which religiosity and moral incongruence interact with masculinity related factors in futures studies. Similarly, though sexual orientation was broadly controlled, recent research has indicated that psychological variables differ significantly across sexual minority identities (Borgogna, McDermott, Aita, & Kridel, 2018). We did not have adequate sample to test our hypotheses across specific orientations. Thus, future researchers should consider this as an important avenue for future study.

Finally, alternative measures of problematic pornography viewing account for potential problems with withdrawal and tolerance. While such factors are not necessarily an issue for all individuals, they are certainly factors for those struggling with pornography addiction (opposed to perceived pornography addiction c.f., Grubbs et al., 2015, 2017). The Problematic Pornography Consumption Scale (Bőthe et al., 2018) is a new measure that provides access to these dimensions. Unfortunately, the scale was not yet available when the current study was being conducted. However, future researchers should consider the benefit of additional dimensions it provides.

Clinical Implications

Despite some limitations, the present findings have important clinical implications. Treatment for problematic pornography viewing are largely in the beginning stages. Sniewski, Farvid, and Carter (2018) conducted a review of research concerning the assessment and treatment of adult men with self-perceived problematic pornography use and were only able to find 11 studies, most of which were case studies. However, a few larger trials were noted. Specifically, studies of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) (Hardy, Ruchty, Hull, & Hyde, 2010; Young, 2007) and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) (Crosby & Twohig, 2016; Twohig & Crosby, 2010) showed significant positive outcomes as treatments for individuals (mostly men) struggling with pornography-related problems.

Our findings suggest that male clients may benefit from adapting such treatments to included masculinity-related factors. Notably, counselors could assess their client’s level of conformity to masculine role norms and explore the positive and negative consequences related to such conformity. Given the positive associations between certain norms and problematic pornography in the present study, counselors could explore masculinity with their clients and discuss how pornography may be tied to their expressions of masculinity. Considering that power over women was the most consistent predictor of problematic pornography viewing, clinicians may consider exploring themes of dominance and power in men’s attractions to pornography. Identifying the origins and function of men’s desires to control women could lead to important self-awareness of the potential antecedents of viewing pornography.

As suggested by the present findings, men who feel insecure in their masculinity may be the most likely to struggle with their pornography viewing, possibly because pornography use may fulfill a core self-esteem need. The robust collection of research addressing therapeutic interventions for self-esteem could provide a much needed direction in how to reduce problematic pornography use. Our research suggests that if therapists are able to improve client self-esteem, concerns related to pornography and/or actual use of pornography may decline. Thus, increasing self-esteem could help to counter some of the traditional masculine role norms that a man may have internalized. It may also help them to counteract these pressures and assist in their own development of healthier perspectives concerning who they are and what is expected of them as a person and as a man.

Conclusion

Problematic pornography viewing is a growing clinical concern (Sniewski et al., 2018). Given the ease of pornographic accessibility, affordability, and viewing anonymity (Cooper, 1998; Cooper, Delmonico, & Burg, 2000), problematic pornography viewing will likely continue to spread, particularly in men. The present study found that socially constructed masculine gender roles norms may influence the development of problematic pornography viewing. Findings also indicated that the relationship between masculinity and pornography viewing is complex. Men with low self-esteem may be overconforming to traditional male roles such that their pornography viewing has become a way of expressing or performing masculinity. Taken together, these findings suggest that focusing on the intersections of culture and individual differences may be especially important for research, theory, and clinical practice addressing men’s personal and relational problems related to their pornography viewing.

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