Sex Health. 2015 May 4. doi: 10.1071/SH14225.
Walker S, Temple-Smith M, Higgs P, Sanci L.
Shelley Walker A B C D , Meredith Temple-Smith C , Peter Higgs A B and Lena Sanci C
A Curtin University, National Drug Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Melbourne Office Suite 6, 19–35 Gertrude Street, Fitzroy, Vic. 3065, Australia.
B Burnet Institute, Centre for Population Health, 85 Commercial Road, Melbourne, Vic. 3001, Australia.
C University of Melbourne, Department of General Practice, 200 Berkeley Street, Carlton, Vic. 3053, Australia.
D Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Background: Young people’s exposure to pornography has increased, as has the violent and sexist nature of mainstream porn. Contemporary content means young people are exposed to violent porn whether they like it or not, and it is no longer a question of whether they will be exposed, but rather when.
Methods: Using purposive sampling, 33 in-depth interviews were conducted with young people aged 15–20 years in 2010–11, to explore the phenomenon of sexting. During initial interviews, participants raised the topic of pornography exposure as a secondary, unexpected finding. Discussions highlighted an important link between sexting and pornography. The inductive nature of the research meant this new and important area of inquiry was able to be explored.
Results: Data was thematically coded and analysed using a grounded theory approach. Findings highlight that many young people are exposed to porn both intentionally and unintentionally. Furthermore, they are concerned about gendered norms that reinforce men’s power and subordination over women. A link between porn exposure, young men’s sexual expectations and young women’s pressure to conform to what is being viewed, has been exposed.
Conclusions: Results are significant given this is one of few recent qualitative Australian studies to explore the issue of pornography exposure from the perspective of young people. Important implications for educators, parents and health providers have been revealed, including the need to create opportunities for young people to challenge the messages expressed in porn, and for their views to be heard in academic and public debate.
References
[1] Smith C, Attwood F. Lamenting sexualization: research, rhetoric and the story of young people’s “sexualization” in the UK Home Office review. Sex Educ 2011; 11: 327–37.
| CrossRef | 
[2] Melrose M. Twenty-first century party people : young people and sexual exploitation in the new millennium Child Abuse Rev 2013; 22: 155–68.
| CrossRef |
[3] Malamuth NM. Pornography. In Smelser NJ, Baltes PB, editors. International encyclopaedia of social and behavioural sciences, Volume 17. New York: Elsevier; 2001. pp. 11816–11821.
[4] Ropelato J. Internet pornography statistics. 2006. Available online at: http://internet-filter-review.toptenreviews.com/internet-pornography-statistics.html [verified 10 October 2014].
[5] Tancer B. Click: what millions of people are doing online and why it matters. New York: Hyperion; 2008.
[6] Dines G. Pornland: how porn has hijacked our sexuality. Boston: Beacon Press; 2010.
[7] Thornburgh D, Lin HS, editors. Youth, pornography, and the Internet. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2002.
[8] Papadopoulos L. Sexualisation of young people review. 2010. Available online at: http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/10738/1/sexualisation-young-people.pdf [verified 23 September 2014].
[9] Bryant C. Adolescence, pornography and harm. Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 2009; 368: 1–6.
[10] Brown JD, L’Engle KL. X-rated sexual attitudes and behaviors associated with US early adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit media. Communic Res 2009; 36: 129–51.
| CrossRef |
[11] Bleakley A, Hennessy M, Fishbein M, Jordan A. It works both ways: the relationship between exposure to sexual content in the media and adolescent sexual behavior. Media Psychol 2008; 11: 443–61.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[12] Flood M. Exposure to pornography among youth in Australia. J Sociol 2007; 43: 45–60.
| CrossRef |
[13] Hald GM, Kuyper L, Adam PCG, de Wit JBF. Does viewing explain doing? Assessing the association between sexually explicit materials use and sexual behaviours in a large sample of Dutch adolescents and young adults. J Sex Med 2013; 10: 2986–95.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[14] Crabbe M, Corlett D. Eroticising inequality. Domestic Violence Res Centre Vic 2010; 3: 1–6.
[15] Boyle K. Producing abuse: selling the harms of pornography. Women Stud Int Forum 2011; 34: 593–602.
| CrossRef |
[16] Bridges AJ, Wosnitzer R, Scharrer E, Sun C, Liberman R. Aggression and sexual behaviour in best-selling pornography videos: a content analysis update. Violence Against Women 2010; 16: 1065–85.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[17] Gorman S, Monk-Turner E, Fish JN. Free adult Internet web sites: how prevalent are degrading acts? Gend Issues 2010; 27: 131–45.
| CrossRef |
[18] Willoughby BJ, Carroll JS, Nelson LJ, Padilla-Walker LM. Associations between relational sexual behaviour, pornography use, and pornography acceptance among US college students. Cult Health Sex 2014; 16: 1052–69.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[19] Allen M, D’Alessio D, Brezgel K. A meta-analysis summarizing the effects of pornography II: aggression after exposure. Hum Commun Res 1995; 22: 258–83.
| CrossRef |
[20] Luder MT, Pittet I, Berchtold A, Akré C, Michaud PA, Surís JC. Associations between online pornography and sexual behaviour among adolescents: myth or reality? Arch Sex Behav 2011; 40: 1027–35.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[21] Flood M. The harms of pornography exposure among children and young people. Child Abuse Rev 2009; 18: 384–400.
| CrossRef |
[22] Szymanski DM, Stewart-Richardson DN. Psychological, relational, and sexual correlates of pornography use on young adult heterosexual men in romantic relationships. J Men Stud 2014; 22: 64–82.
| CrossRef |
[23] O’Sullivan LF, Udell W, Montrose VA, Antoniello P, Hoffman S. A cognitive analysis of college students’ explanations for engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse. Arch Sex Behav 2010; 39: 1121–31.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[24] Gagnon J, Simon W. Sexual conduct: the social sources of human sexuality. Chicago: Aldine; 1973.
[25] Sakaluk J, Todd L, Milhausen R, Lachowsky N, Undergraduate Research Group in Sexuality (URGiS) Dominant heterosexual scripts in emerging adulthood: conceptualization and measurement. J Sex Res 2014; 51: 516–31.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[26] Frith H, Kitzinger C. Reformulating sexual script theory. Theory Psychol 2001; 11: 209–32.
| CrossRef |
[27] Ryan KM. The relationship between rape myths and sexual scripts: The social construction of rape. Sex Roles 2011; 65: 774–782.
| CrossRef |
[28] Hald G, Malamuth N, Lange T. Pornography and sexist attitudes among heterosexuals. J Commun 2013; 63: 638–60.
| CrossRef |
[29] Jensen R, Okrina D. Pornography and sexual violence. 2004. Available online at: http://new.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/AR_PornAndSV.pdf [verified 16 September 2014].
[30] Peter J, Valkenburg PM. Adolescents? Exposure to sexually explicit online material and recreational attitudes toward sex. J Commun 2006; 56: 639–60.
| CrossRef |
[31] Marston C, Lewis R.. Anal heterosex among young people and implications for health promotion: A qualitative study in the UK. BMJ Open 2014; 4e004996
[32] Lofgren-Mårtenson L, Månsson SA. Lust, love, and life: a qualitative study of Swedish adolescents’ perceptions and experiences with pornography. J Sex Res 2010; 47: 568–79.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[33] Walker S, Sanci L, Temple-Smith M. Sexting: young women’s and men’s views on its nature and origins. J Adolesc Health 2013; 52: 697–701.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[34] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). International technical guidance on sexuality education: an evidence-informed approach for schools, teachers and health educators. Paris: UNESCO; 2009.
[35] Hammersly M. Deconstructing the qualitative-quantitative divide. In Brannen, J, editor. Mixing methods: qualitative and quantitative research. Aldershott: Avebury; 1992.
[36] Hansen EC. Successful qualitative health research: a practical introduction. Crows Nest: Allen and Unwin; 2006.
[37] Heath S, Brooks R, Cleaver E, Ireland E. Researching young people’s lives. London: SAGE Publications Ltd; 2009.
[38] QSR International Pty Ltd. NVivo qualitative data analysis software for Mac Version 9. Melbourne: Australia; 2010.
[39] Glaser BG, Strauss AL. The discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine; 1967.
[40] Wallmyr G, Welin C. Young people, pornography, and sexuality: sources and attitudes. J Sch Nurs 2006; 22: 290–5.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[41] Powell A. Sex, power and consent: youth culture and the unwritten rules. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press; 2010.
[42] Boyle K. The pornography debates: beyond cause and effect. Women Stud Int Forum 2000; 23: 187–95.
| CrossRef |
[43] Weinberg MS, Williams CJ, Kleiner S, Irizarry Y. Pornography, normalization, and empowerment. Arch Sex Behav 2010; 39: 1389–401.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[44] Grov C, Gillespie BJ, Royce T, Lever J. Perceived consequences of casual online sexual activities on heterosexual relationships: a U.S. online survey. Arch Sex Behav 2011; 40: 429–39.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[45] Wolak J, Mitchell K, Finkelhor D. Unwanted and wanted exposure to online pornography in a national sample of youth Internet users. Pediatrics 2007; 119: 247–57.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[46] Rideout VJ, Foehr UG, Roberts DF. Generation M2: media in the lives of 8- to 18-year-olds. California: Kaiser Family Foundation; 2010.
[47] Herbenick D, Hensel D, Smith NK, Schick V, Reece M, Sanders SA, Fortenberry JD. Pubic hair removal and sexual behavior: findings from a prospective daily diary study of sexually active women in the United States. J Sex Med 2013; 10: 678–85.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[48] McBride KR, Fortenberry JD. Heterosexual anal sexuality and anal sex behaviors: a review. J Sex Res 2010; 47: 123–36.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[49] Mattebo M, Larsson M, Tydén T, Häggström-Nordin E. Professionals’ perceptions of the effect of pornography on Swedish adolescents. Public Health Nurs 2014; 31: 196–205.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[50] Vannier SA, Currie AB, O’Sullivan LF. Schoolgirls and soccer moms: a content analysis of free “teen” and “MILF” online pornography. J Sex Res 2014; 51: 253–64.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[51] Mitchell A, Smith A, Carman M, Schlichthorst M, Walsh J, Pitts M. Sexuality education in Australia in 2011. Melbourne: Australian Research Centre in Sex Health and Society & La Trobe University; 2011.
[52] Mitchell A, Patrick K, Heywood W, Blackman P, Pitts M. National survey of Australian secondary students and sexual health 2013. Melbourne: Australian Research Centre in Sex Health and Society & La Trobe University; 2014.
[53] Hare K, Gahagan J, Jackson L, Steenbeck A. Revisualising ‘porn’: how young adults’ consumption of sexually explicit Internet movies can inform approaches to Canadian sexual health promotion. Cult Health Sex 2015; 17: 269–83.
| CrossRef | PubMed |
[54] Shoveller J, Johnson J. Risky groups, risky behaviour, and risky persons: dominating discourses on youth sexual health. Crit Public Health 2006; 16: 47–60.
| CrossRef |
[55] Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth (ARACY) & the New South Wales Commission for Children and Young People (CCYP). Involving children and young people in research: A compendium of papers and reflections from a think tank. Australia: ARACY & NSW CCYP; 2008.
;